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the working tools of the craft
CHAPTER XXXI
part II - Symbolism and the Teachings of Freemasonry
THE SQUARE AND COMPASSES
W.
M. Don Falconer PM, PDGDC
From time immemorial the working tools of
an operative freemason have been used as symbols for moral
instruction.
A craft originally was an
organisation of workers who had a range of skills in a particular
trade or vocation. Craft comes from the Old English craeft,
derived from the Old Saxon and Old German kraft,
which originally meant strength and skill. Its adjective craeftig meant crafty and signified dexterous or expert. The sinister
aspects of crafty, which include cunning from the Old
English cunnan meaning to know, are modern
usages of the word that were not in vogue when the crafts flourished
in medieval times. This change in the usage of cunning
is reflected in different versions of I Kings 7:14 of the Bible,
which records that Hiram King of Tyre sent Hiram Abif to Jerusalem
to assist King Solomon in the construction of the temple. In the Authorised Version
issued by King James VI in 1611, Hiram Abif is described as
“filled with wisdom and
understanding and cunning to work all works in brass”. In
the New English Bible issued
in 1970 Hiram Abif is called “a man of great skill and
ingenuity, versed in every kind of craftsmanship in
bronze”.
Family peace guilds, called frith, existed in London
by about the middle of the tenth century. The first merchant guild
is believed to have originated in Dover in about the middle of the
eleventh century, when it seems that the first weaver guilds also
were established. In medieval times the workers in many crafts
established fraternal associations for the mutual assistance of
their members, which they called gilds and later
guilds, derived from the Old English gield
that was a synonym of the Old Norman gildi
signifying a company self supported by subscriptions. There
is ample evidence that the craft guilds were well established in
Britain by about 1135, during the reign of Henry I.
Although the craft guilds came
into existence to safeguard the interests of skilled workers in the
various trades, they also were religious fraternities whose members
were required to attend church frequently and also on a regular
basis. Under the protection of their guild and with the assistance
of its members, many families rose from serfdom to become employers
within a few generations. The operative masons who erected
ecclesiastical structures in medieval times became the largest and
most effectively organised of all the craft guilds and were soon
called “the free masons”, or more familiarly as
“the craft”. The rough
masons, wallers, slaters, paviors, plaisterers, bricklayers,
carpenters, bronze founders, iron workers, gold smiths and white
smiths, all of whom worked closely with the freemasons on the more
important building works, often formed their own craft guilds in the
larger centres.
Although the members of most
crafts could find work in the vicinity of their homes, many members
of the craft of freemasonry frequently had to travel long distances
to find work and establish new project sites. This undoubtedly was a
significant factor leading to the establishment of lodges. In
operative practice the lodge originally
signified the place of work, especially the stone yard. The English
word was derived from the Old French loge meaning an arbour, which was
adopted into Middle English to mean a stall as in modern
theatres. The earliest known reference to a lodge as a building
occurs in the accounts of the Vale Royal Abbey in 1277, when logias and mansiones were erected
for the workers because the site of the abbey was some distance from
habitation. Logias was an Old French
verb and mansiones a Middle Latin
noun, which respectively signify to lodge and a household, reflecting
the influence of French and Latin on the English language. In
England old operative documents often refer to lodges as places of
residence, but sometimes they also were repositories for tools and
implements, as at the York Minster in 1399. A body of masons also
became known as a lodge by association,
almost certainly in medieval times. Perhaps unexpectedly the first
known references in this context are to be found in relation to
operative practice in Scotland, in the minutes of the Aitchison's
Haven Lodge in 1598 and also in the Schaw Statutes of 1598
and 1599.
In medieval times many of the
lodges must have worked independently, because travel was very
difficult and time consuming. Even so, there is evidence that annual
assemblages of free masons were taking place during the 1300s, which
were the gatherings that Henry VI sought to prohibit by the Statutes
of 1436 and 1437. The guild system proved to be highly successful
until it was devastated by the Reformation of 1530-1560, when
Henry VIII confiscated most of the guilds’ possessions.
Henry VIII’s son, Edward VI, completed the disendowment of the
guilds by an Act of 1547 under which any remaining guild funds that
had been dedicated for religious purposes were confiscated, as also
were the funds of all other religious fraternities. The guilds that
survived the Reformation became the Livery Companies of the City of
London, of which the “Fellowship of
Masons”
probably is the best known. It came into existence very early in the
1300s and was called “The Worshipful Company of Ffree
Masons of the City of London”
from the grant of its arms in 1471 until some time in the
1500s. In 1655, during the aftermath of the Reformation, it was
renamed "The Company of
Masons".
In operative lodges the
supervisory officers included foremen, intendents, superintendents,
wardens and deacons, who were responsible for control of the various
sections of work. All were fully qualified craftsmen who had been
promoted through the ranks when they were sufficiently experienced
and had demonstrated the skill and ability required to undertake
progressively higher levels of responsibility. The titles and duties
of the supervisory officers were not standardised. Medieval guilds
in England had wardens of the craft and wardens of the mystery. In
medieval lodges in Scotland the chief officers frequently were
deacons, often supported by wardens, although the two offices
sometimes merged into one or the warden was the chief officer. In
some assemblages the freemasons worked under the control of deacons,
although wardens were responsible for overall supervision of the
lodges. By the second half of the seventeenth century, Master Masons
began to rule operative lodges in Scotland and had Wardens as their
deputies. Evidence suggests that English speculative lodges had
Wardens in the seventeenth century and that Deacons were later introduced following the
practice in Scotland.
In medieval times in England,
apprentices in freemasonry were recruited from suitable boys,
usually aged between twelve and fifteen years. A youngster learning
the mason trade was indentured as an apprentice in an operative
lodge. His training nominally was for a period of seven years. The
earliest known regulation relating to apprenticeships in London
dates from about 1230, but it was not enforced strictly for many
years. Almost a century had passed before apprenticeship was in
general use, at about the time the Fellowship of
Masons was formed in London. A boy seeking engagement and
considered to be acceptable by the members of the lodge was required
to swear that he would be obedient and learn the craft. He was then
bound over as an Indentured Apprentice to a senior freemason, often
the Master Mason himself, who was the apprentice’s
master for his period of indentureship. Whilst in training the
apprentice lived with his master and gave him implicit obedience in
all things, with little recompense other than food, clothing and
lodging. His place in lodge life was equally subordinate.
In England, an apprentice who
had a good record was tested in the stoneyard for practical
proficiency at the end of his indentureship. If he proved himself to
be capable and passed an examination in the lodge, the members voted
on his admission into full membership. When accepted, he was
regarded as a fully qualified tradesman. However, as he had not yet
gained sufficient experience to take charge of construction, he
would be required to work under the guidance of expert craftsmen for
as long as seven more years, although the time varied considerably.
When he had proved his ability to take charge of building work, he
was accepted as a Fellow and was free to engage subordinate labour
and to carry out work in his own right. The title of Fellow is first
found in English documents towards the end of the fourteenth
century, when it clearly signified membership of a fraternity, but
did not appear to indicate a specific grade of proficiency.
Records in Scotland dating
from the fifteenth century show that youths were apprenticed to
monasteries for periods varying from five to nine years. When an
apprentice mason had satisfactorily completed his training in the
stoneyard he was "entered" in the books
of his lodge. This feature of Scottish operative practice dates from
1598 and probably earlier. Entered Apprentices in Scottish lodges
were put in charge of small groups of junior apprentices, although
they were still required to work for a few more years under the
overall guidance of experienced masons to develop their proficiency
and leadership. In Edinburgh the Trade Regulations, incorporated in
the Seal of Cause of 1475,
provided for an apprentice to serve a term of seven years, after
which he was to be examined by four searchers. When found to
be proficient he became a Fellow of the Craft and was entitled to
all the privileges of the membership of his lodge. In operative
lodges Fellows of the Craft were fully qualified masters of their
craft in all its aspects. They were allowed to engage labour and to
take charge of building work. In operative freemasonry the title of
Master Mason usually
referred to the master tradesman who was in charge of a building
project, often the proprietor of the lodge engaged to carry out the
work.
It is of interest to know that
the word fellow is related to the
Middle English word fee, which signified a
fief or payment, derived
from the Old High German fihu or fehu. It has an
important cognate in the Scandinavian group of Germanic languages,
the Old Norman felag, which signified a
placing together of property and hence a partnership. From this
usage came the Old English feolaga, then the Middle
English felaghe,
which later became felawe, whence the
English fellow, signifying an
associate, a companion and an equal. Thus a Fellow of the Craft was
someone who held membership in his craft, for which a fee usually
was payable, in consequence of which he accepted the duties of his
position and enjoyed the privileges of membership. Nowadays the
title Fellow usually applies
to the highest grade of membership in a scientific or technical
institution, but it also is used in universities to designate the
holder of a Fellowship.
Records from the beginning of
the 1500s indicate that Scottish and Irish operative lodges accepted persons of
stature as honorary members, even though they were neither operative
masons nor craftsmen in any other trade. However, this custom does
not seem to have begun in England for another hundred years, when
the "Fellowship of Masons"
in London established an inner fraternity known as the Acception, whose members
were not necessarily members of the Company. Although seven
members of the Company were enrolled in
the Acception during 1620
and 1621, the King's Master Mason, who also was the
Master of the Company in 1633, was not
enrolled in the Acception until 1639!
The Company's records show
that several non-operatives were
enrolled in the Acception from 1663
onwards. The English craft guilds were decimated by the Reformation
of 1530-1560, after which period any lodges of operative freemasons
that were established were only set up for the duration of specific
projects. With the exception of an Assemblage at York, there are no
records of English lodges transforming from operative to speculative
practice as they did in Scotland, although many operative freemasons
in England were involved in the establishment of speculative lodges.
By contrast with England and Ireland, most operative lodges in
Scotland continued well into the 1750s, some of them much longer,
many of which become speculative lodges almost as a matter of
course.
The titles Entered Apprentice and
Fellowcraft were not
used in English lodges until the 1700s, when both of these
speculative grades were adopted from operative freemasonry in
Scotland. They became firmly established in English speculative
freemasonry when they appeared in Dr James Anderson's Constitutions of 1723.
The first known use of these titles in England was by the very old
operative Assembly of Masons at York, called the York Grand Lodge, which
was independent from the Grand Lodges formed in London.
Unfortunately the earliest surviving minutes of the York Grand Lodge date
from 1712, when it already was in the process of becoming
speculative. Of particular interest are the minutes of its meeting
held in 1725 on the Festival of St John, which record that "E.P. (Entered 'Prentice), F.C.
and M.M. attended", clearly indicating that these three
degrees were being worked at that time. Prior to that meeting the
Master was usually referred to as the President, but at that meeting
he became the Grand Master, when a Deputy Grand Master and Grand
Wardens also were elected. It has been established beyond doubt that
admissions to the grades of Apprentice and Fellow were of an
esoteric nature at least as early as 1598. In speculative craft
freemasonry the degree
of Master Mason is similar to the ceremonial of the Ancient Drama in
operative freemasonry that has been enacted annually from time
immemorial.
Because so much of its work
was carried out in an ecclesiastical environment, the craft of
freemasons was subject to a stronger religious influence than any of
the other craft guilds. This no doubt explains why the old operative
ceremonies were based on stories from the scriptures and included
extensive moral instruction. In this respect the Old Charges were a key
element in the induction of candidates into English operative
lodges, providing a foundation for the ethical teaching carried out
in the weekly meetings. An essential part of the Old Charges was the
traditional history, in which the concurrent development of
civilisation and masonry was recounted on the basis of legends
derived from biblical history, supplemented by allegorical anecdotes
of contemporaneous events. Erudite researchers have expressed the
opinion that a learned monk, who was well acquainted with the usages
and customs of the mason's trade, probably prepared the Old Charges. Those
researchers are of the opinion that the subject matter of the Old Charges is much
older than the earliest manuscript presently known, which is the Regius MS dating from
about 1390. It is possible that much of the original material
relating to the conduct of a freemason may have been derived from
the earliest trade ordinances that are known to have come into
effect near the end of the eleventh century, although no copies have
yet been discovered. No other medieval craft guild or religious
fraternity is known to have possessed a document similar to the
Old Charges.
Although the traditional
history and charges were not identical everywhere, they had a
consistent theme and were regarded by the medieval operative
freemasons in England as the foundation of their craft in all ages
and in all places. Authentic copies of those Old Charges constituted
the authority under which operative lodges held their meetings,
centuries before warrants were issued by the early Grand Lodges. An
interesting aspect of the traditional history is the allegorical
account that Charles Martel (688-741), known as Charles the Hammer
in France, established freemasonry in England. This account might
have a factual basis. Masonic legends in France include the
anomalous assertion that Charles Martel learnt the craft of
freemasonry from a curious mason named Naymus Graecus, who had
been present at the erection of Solomon's temple.
Scotland had a close
association with France, which began when the Irish apostle and
Benedictine monk St Columba (521-597) established the first
monastery at Iona. St Columba converted the northern Picts to
Christianity and also worked in Brittany and the Vosges district of
France, where he founded the great abbey at Luxeuil. Having regard
to this religious association, which was supported by a significant
inflow of operative freemasons from France to Scotland, it perhaps
is surprising that Scottish operative lodges did not have their own
traditional histories. The few Old Charges possessed by
Scottish lodges of operative freemasons obviously were copied from
English sources and date from about the time when the Seal of Cause was issued
in Edinburgh in 1475. Likewise there is no evidence of Irish
operative lodges having a traditional history similar to that of
their English counterparts, but there is ample evidence that they
used their working tools as symbols for moral instruction early in
the sixteenth century.
Operative lodges traditionally
met at noon on the sixth day of each week, when they conducted their
business, inducted their candidates and imparted moral instruction.
That time of meeting is the basis of the paradoxical answer to one
of the questions put to a speculative Entered Apprentice during his
examination, to he replies “when the sun was at its meridian”.
Operative masons were obligated under oath and were subject to
penalties that were customary for the period. In operative lodges
the candidate in each of the several degrees was told that he
represented a particular stone required in the construction of
Solomon's temple. The ceremonial and its inherent religious
components were woven around the preparation, testing and placement
of that stone in the temple, symbolising the erection of a spiritual
temple.
The perambulations of the
candidate around the lodge room also related to the erection of the
temple. Candidates were taught by charge and catechism and were
required to learn much by rote. From the earliest times, one of the
most important components of the ritual was a moral interpretation
of the many working tools of a mason. This is not surprising,
because the names of so many of the tools express a moral quality
without requiring any further definition. The working tools
presented in the speculative degrees were not the only ones used by
the Apprentice, Fellow and Master in operative lodges, but were
chosen to illustrate the teachings of the speculative degree.
The Fabric Rolls of York
Minster of 1360 list a kevel, sometimes incorrectly
called a keevil, which was similar to a very large
gavel and was the stone-axe used to break and roughly shape stones
in the quarry. The name was used in Scotland and northern England
until the early 1800s, but its origin is obscure, though probably
deriving from the Old Norman French keville,
which means a key, from which a clavicle also is
descended. The Fabric Rolls of York
Minster provide a detailed inventory of the tools stored in the
masons' lodge at the end of the year 1399, including stone-axes,
iron chisels, mallets, tracing boards, a hatchet, a big gavel, a
compass and a host of other tools.
Some of the less familiar
tools listed in early inventories include stone-hammers and
stone-axes in a large variety of shapes and weights; setting-hammers
with hollow heads for the hard stone hewers; scabbling hammers for
the rough layers; various hammer-axes, brick-axes, pickaxes and
mattocks; chisels, puncheons and augers; crowbars, levers and
wedges; and mallets, mauls and trowels. The principal wooden tools
used by operative
freemasons were the straight-edges, rules, squares, levels,
plumb-rules and heavy setting mauls required to ensure that the
stones were placed and set to the correct lines and levels during
the erection of the structure. They were wooden to avoid marking the
dressed and polished
stones. Thus we read in I Kings 6:5 of the New English Bible
that:
"no hammer or axe or any iron tool
whatever was heard in the house while it was being
built".
The three symbolic working
tools of an Entered Apprentice in a speculative lodge are not the
same as those presented to his operative counterpart when first
indentured. The tools presented to an Indentured Apprentice in an
operative lodge were the metal straight edge, the maul or mallet and
the chisel, which were the first tools he would learn to use. As the
metal straight edge is used as a guide for the chisel when dressing
a stone, so it constantly reminds the apprentice that he is required
to maintain a straight and undeviating course of action in his work
and in his dealings with others. As the maul or mallet applies the
driving force to the chisel, so it reminds the apprentice that it is
his duty to work hard and diligently in the stoneyard and also in
his private life. As the keen edge of the chisel is accurately
shaped to cut the stone, it impresses upon the apprentice's mind
that knowledge is essential in all activities. The three tools in
combination remind the apprentice that all difficulties can be
overcome if the correct approach is used with knowledge, hard work
and perseverance.
During the course of his
indentureship, the apprentice mason learned to use many more working
tools, including such implements as axes, bevels and squares,
callipers and compasses, gauges of various shapes, hammers, rasps
and scrapers - the range was limited only by the sizes and shapes of
the stones he was required to cut and dress. The
twenty-four inch gauge that is presented to a speculative
Entered Apprentice nowadays was introduced to impress upon the
candidate the importance of allocating his time properly, so that it
would be well spent. In operative freemasonry this aspect of an
apprentice's duties were impressed upon him throughout his training,
by the strictest adherence to his daily schedule of practical
instruction, his weekly attendance in lodge and his regular
participation in the religious services of the institution for which
his lodge was working.
The maul or mallet, which is
also called a mell in northern England and Scotland,
must not be confused with the heavy setting maul, which is also
known as a beetle or sledge hammer. The beetle is a very heavy
wooden mallet with a long handle used for driving wedges, crushing
broken stone for a macadam road surface, or beating down paving
stones. The beetle derives its name from two of the Old English
words meaning to beat, respectively bietl and beatan. A heavy wooden
truncheon is also called a beetle. The speculative ritualists
replaced the maul with a common gavel, which in fact is never used
with a chisel. Moreover, as the gavel is an emblem of power in the
sense of government, it is not a very appropriate symbol with
respect to the duties of an apprentice. The similarly shaped
implements used in operative masonry was the much larger kevel and
the stone-axe which had a steel cutting edge, with which the
quarrymen broke and roughly shaped the stones. As the stone-axe
symbolises the force of conscience, the early speculative ritualists
might have intended the wooden gavel to be a miniature
representation of it.
It is possible that later
ritualists may have inadvertently called the beetle a gavel, which
is a name of American origin from the nineteenth century that refers
to its gable-like shape. Unlike their speculative counterparts, the
master and wardens in an operative lodge did not use gavels, but
carried truncheons, which have been staffs of authority since early
medieval times. The master also had a maul as a symbol of his
authority and his driving force in the lodge. In some Irish lodges
the master's emblem of authority was a stone-axe or hammer and the
wardens carried truncheons. In some Scottish and American lodges of
speculative craft freemasonry the operative custom of using the maul
as an emblem of the master's authority is still in practice. In
Scottish lodges the senior deacon's jewel is a maul and the junior
deacon's jewel is a trowel, which indicate that the respective
responsibilities of the senior and junior deacons are to exercise
control in the work and to maintain harmony.
Of the several wooden working
tools used in operative lodges, the square, the level and the plumb
rule were appropriated to the Fellowcraft in speculative craft
freemasonry. This is logical because his operative counterpart was a
mason of superior status who was directly responsible for ensuring
that the building was erected in strict conformity with the working
plans. It should be noted that operative masons used three different
squares, each for a specific purpose and each having an important
though somewhat different symbolical meaning. Each of these squares
has an important place in the speculative ritual, although they are
not differentiated in the ritual so that the subtle differences of
meaning that are explained in the charges might be missed by anyone
who is not familiar with operative practice. Attention will be drawn
to these differences when discussing the symbolism of the square.
The working tools of a Fellowcraft freemason in a speculative lodge
are only miniature representations of the operative tools and they
are made of metal as a matter of convenience, so that it may be
difficult to envisage how they would have been used in building
construction.
The levels and plumb rules
used by operative freemasons were closely related, because each
utilised a line and plumb bob to determine the vertical plane and
hence the correct attitude of the implement. In their simplest form,
as used continuously in operative freemasonry at least from the
times of ancient Egypt, the frames of both implements were
constructed from stout wooden staves that could be dressed perfectly
and would not warp or twist. The level generally was in the shape of
an equilateral triangle constructed from staves about two cubits or
a little over a metre long, with the line and plumb bob suspended
from one apex. When the plumb line hung vertically and the point of
the plumb bisected the base, the base was horizontal and could be
used either to lay levels, or to try and if necessary to adjust
horizontals. From the use of the level, in conjunction with the
beetle or heavy setting maul, the expression "setting to a dead
level" is derived. The plumb rule usually was a stave about
two cubits long, with its long edges dressed parallel to each other.
A line and plumb bob were suspended from the upper extremity of the
stave on its centre line to determine its verticality. Either long
edge of the stave could be used to set verticals, or to try and if
necessary to adjust upright members to the vertical plane.
As the apprentice in operative
lodges learnt to use a wide range of tools during his period of
training, so also did the fellow during his first few years whilst
under the supervision of more expert craftsmen. In addition to the
square, level and plumb-rule, he learnt to use the wooden
straight-edge, plumb lines or plummets, string lines and skirrets,
trowels and the Pythagorean square composed of three graduated rods
in the ratios of 3:4:5. String lines and skirrets are
used to set out lines, but the wooden straight edge is the implement
used to test a course of stones for straightness along a line or a
vertical series of courses for the uniformity of its surface. A
plumb line or plummet is used to plumb a point in a vertical plane
and three plumb lines are used together to line up intermediate
points in straight lines over long distances, but the plumb-rule is
the implement used to check the stones for verticality in successive
courses. The Pythagorean square is used when setting out a building,
but not when checking right angles during erection, for which
purpose the gallows square is the correct implement. The working
tools of a fellow thus fall into two distinct groups, one for use
when setting out a building and the other for use during its
erection.
Most Fellows
could set out a building if given the location of a corner of the
building and one of the building lines commencing from that corner.
However, most stately edifices were required to be set out from a
given centre point, which only the most capable craftsmen were
competent to perform. Thus it usually was only the master of the
lodge, the Master Mason himself, who set out the
building with the assistance of some of his most experienced
craftsmen. For this purpose he utilised plumb lines, string lines,
skirrets and the Pythagorean square. In the northern hemisphere the
Pole Star can be sighted to determine the north-south axis. This is
done by sighting the Pole Star through a plumb line set up over the
required centre point, then lining in two other plumb lines at or
beyond each of the required northern and southern extremities. In
both hemispheres the north-south axis can be established by the
bisecting an equidistant transition of the sun from the eastern
quarter to the western quarter, sighted through a plumb line set up
over the required centre point. When the north-south axis has been
established it is marked with a string line, so that the east-west
axis and the required diagonals can then be established using a
Pythagorean square in conjunction with string lines drawn from a
skirret at the centre. There are paintings at Thebes in Egypt,
dating from 3000 BCE or earlier, which show masons using a
stretched cord to draw a line in this fashion.
In medieval times the
Master Mason usually would be provided with only a
description of the required sizes and layout of a building he was
required to construct. More often than not the details would be
developed progressively with input from the owner over many years of
construction. Thus another very important duty of the Master
Mason was to prepare layout plans of the building for the
owner's approval, from which the Master Mason would
prepare detailed designs and working drawings. The Master
Mason would also prepare detailed drawings for the most
important components of the structure, even to the extent of
detailing the designs of the windows and the symbolic decorations
incorporated in most ecclesiastical buildings. As the pencil and
compasses were essential implements used by the Master
Mason of an operative lodge when preparing designs and
drawings, it was appropriate to include them with the skirret and
line as the working tools of a Master Mason in a
speculative lodge.
In Zechariah 2:2 in the
New English Bible, when
Zechariah saw a man carrying a measuring line he asked where the man
was going and was told:
"To measure Jerusalem and see what should
be its breadth and length".
The symbolical use of the
measuring line in Biblical times is confirmed by a passage in
Jeremiah 31:39 in the New English Bible, which
tells us that:
"The time is coming,
says the Lord, when the city shall be rebuilt in the Lord's honour,
from the Tower of Hananel to the Corner Gate. The measuring line
shall then be laid straight out over the hill of Gareb and around
Goath."
The three types of
square used by operative freemasons were the square gauge, the try
square and the gallows square. The square gauge is an enclosed
square of the required inside dimensions to test a cubic ashlar or
the cross section of a running stone. The try square has two arms of
equal length that include an angle of 90°. It is not calibrated to
measure lengths along the arms, because it is only used to test the
angle between the two faces of a stone along the arris where they
meet, to ensure that they subtend a right angle. The gallows square
is used to set out right angles and has two arms of unequal length
that include an angle of 90°. Both arms are calibrated on the inside
and outside edges to facilitate the measurement of dimensions when
scribing stones for cutting. It is also used to set out column
bases, wall recesses and other details in the ground plans of
structures. The usual sizes of gallows squares used in operative
lodges were a small square in the ratio of 2:3 and having
12" x 18" arms; a general purpose square in the ratio of
3:4 called a Pythagorean square and having
18" x 24" arms; and a large square in the ratio of
2:3 and having 24" x 36" arms, which was used to
check corners and other wall intersections both internally and
externally.
When admitted for advancement
as a Fellowcraft in a speculative craft lodge the candidate is told
that, having been obligated within the square, he is bound to act on
the square to all mankind. This exhortation derives from the
operative practice of requiring the candidate to kneel with both
knees bare on an ashlar stone that was placed within the square
gauge. The reason for the change is not recorded, but the present
method of supporting the candidate's elbow within the angle of a
small Pythagorean square was substituted for the operative practice
at about the time when reconciliation between the Antients and the Moderns was achieved.
The traditional "Square and Compasses"
emblem should incorporate a try square that has not been calibrated
and a similar square should also be used to form the emblem
representing the three great emblematic lights of freemasonry.
Because the try square is used to test the angles of a perfect
ashlar stone, it is a universal emblem of morality and justice that
inculcates truthfulness, honesty and a strict obedience to the law
of God's Word. It therefore is rightfully included in the three
great emblematic lights by which we shall be tried as "living stones". In
Isaiah 28:16 of the New English Bible we
read:
"These then are the words of the Lord
God: look, I am laying a stone in Zion, a block of granite, a
precious corner-stone for a firm foundation; he who has faith shall
not waver".
In Psalm 118:22 we also
read that:
"The stone which the builders rejected
has become the chief corner-stone".
The gallows square, with
arms in the 3:4 or Pythagorean ratio, is the traditional emblem of
the Master that has been used by operative freemasons from time
immemorial. It is still used as the Master's emblem by them and by
most Continental freemasons. As the gallows square is used to set
out the work, which is the Master's duty, so it is the most
appropriate square to use as the emblem of the Master's office. For
some reason that has not been recorded, but apparently during the
1830s after Euclid's 47th Proposition was introduced as the basis of
the speculative Past Master's jewel in England, the speculative
Master's emblem was changed to a try square. Perhaps this was a
result of the early speculative ritualists' passion for
symmetry.
The Master's jewel is a
symbolic reminder that he is required to rule his lodge justly and
properly, that his conduct must be exemplary and his decisions
impartial. In English speculative freemasonry the Immediate Past
Master's jewel is a miniature illustration of Euclid's 47th
Proposition, suspended from a gallows square with sides 3 units and
4 units long and a hypotenuse 5 units long. About two thousand years
before Euclid developed his 47th Proposition, which is one of
general application, some skilful craftsman in ancient Egypt had
discovered the usefulness of a right angled triangle with sides in
the ratios of 3:4:5. Nevertheless the discovery is
traditionally attributed to Pythagoras of Greece, who had studied
and worked in Egypt and learnt about the use of the triangle there.
The 3:4:5 ratios are the basis of the operative
freemason's Pythagorean triangle of rods that are used to set out a
structure.
The jewels of Scottish Masters
and Irish Past Masters, as well as of many American Past Masters,
incorporate the try square and compasses combined. This is a
symbolic reminder that, in addition to conducting themselves
squarely and taking impartial decisions, Masters must keep all their
actions within due bounds. The letter G within the square and
compasses is a common decoration on the flap of freemasons' aprons
in Scotland and America, which combines the foregoing symbolism with
the following. In medieval Europe the shape of the gallows square
with arms in the ratio of 3:4 was used in ecclesiastical
script to represent the capital letter G, because it was the
same shape as Gamma in Greek. The
gallows square, as well as the Greek Gamma that is equivalent
to G in the Roman alphabet,
all stand for God and represent His
great attribute of "Justice". In medieval
paintings of the Christian disciples, the gallows square is often
found embroidered on their vestments, as it is on some priestly
robes even to this day. Eminent researchers have stated that the
gallows square was also used in early speculative lodges where the
letter G is used nowadays, thus
showing that the square is one of the most important moral
instruments of the craft of freemasonry, while at the same time
representing God in His capacity as the Grand Geometrician of the
Universe.
As a working tool of an
operative freemason, the level is used to set all required points to
the same level on a construction site. From this is derived its
symbolic interpretation, which is equality, but such equality is not
expressed in relation to wealth or to poverty in the fiscal sense.
The symbolism of the level is not applied in the secular sense
concerning social distinction, civic responsibility or service to
mankind, but is applied in the moral sphere with reference to the
internal rather than the external qualifications of a human being.
The level alludes to that fraternal quality which, in recognising
the Fatherhood of God, also
accepts as a necessary corollary the Brotherhood of Man. The
level reminds us that we are infinitesimal creatures in God's grand
scheme of the universe. It naturally follows that all human beings
must appear the same in His sight, in which sense we are all equal
and subject to the same infirmities and vicissitudes of life,
seeking the same immortal mansion and preparing to be judged by the
same immutable laws.
The equality of brethren in
the lodge is that of the dignity and worth of the human soul, which
is the same for everyone regardless of man-made distinctions.
Masonic equality also recognises that one man may have greater
potentialities for service, for life or for reward than another, but
it also denies that any differences of that nature should preclude
anyone from aspiring to any height, however great. The level reminds
us that we have all sprung from the same stock and are all partakers
of the same nature, so therefore we all share the same hopes. Thus
the level is an appropriate emblem of the Senior Warden, because
when the lodge is at labour all symbolically are under his immediate
supervision and therefore are on a common level of
subordination.
Plumb lines and plumb rules
are implements used to determine a vertical plane and are often
called plummets in the scriptures. Each depends upon a line from
which a heavy plumb bob is suspended, so that when hanging freely
the line is perpendicular. These devices are among the oldest
emblems and all have similar symbolic interpretations. The plumb is
a symbol of truth and rectitude of conduct. It inculcates the
integrity of life and that undeviating course of moral uprightness
that alone can distinguish a good and just man. When erecting
earthly structures the operative mason pays strict attention to the
vertical, as determined by the plumb, because any deviation from the
upright contributes to instability. In like manner the speculative
freemason should be guided by the unerring principles of right and
truth that are symbolised by the plumb, neither succumbing to the
pressures of adversity nor yielding to the seductions of prosperity.
We read in Isaiah 28:17 of the New English Bible that
the Lord said:
"I will use justice as a plumb-line and
righteousness as a plummet; hail shall sweep away your refuge of
lies and flood-waters carry away your shelter".
Also, in Amos 7:7-8 we read
that the Lord said to Amos:
"I am setting a plumb
line to the heart of my people Israel; never again will I pass them
by."
It is interesting to note
that, from the most ancient times, many common words used in
everyday speech have had a symbolic meaning that is related to their
practical usage. Thus the Hebrew word tsedek denotes rightness
and straightness in a physical sense, whilst signifying what is
right and just in a moral sense. The Greek word orthos in the physical
sense means straight, erect or standing upright, whilst in the
ethical sense it signifies right, correct, proper and equitable. In
Latin the word rectum denotes something
straight or upright and also someone of honesty and integrity. In
English the word right has a similar
duality. In the moral sense right denotes something
that is just, fair or equitable, while in the physical sense it
indicates that something is straight, or perpendicular. Likewise,
when referring to the angle that is produced when a line or a plane
is placed in a position perpendicular to another line or plane, like
a vertical wall standing on a horizontal floor, which interrelates
the use of the plumb and the level, the angle of 90° thus formed is
called a right angle. The plumb rule is
appropriate as the jewel of the Junior Warden, because it is
emblematic of the upright conduct that should always distinguish the
brethren during their periods of refreshment, when symbolically they
are under the Junior Warden’s control.
The pencil, like the quill in
olden times and the pen in modern times, is a symbol of learning and
knowledge. Writing is a
visible expression of the human intellect that is used to convey our
thoughts and inner feelings. By association, the pencil is a symbol
of the law of God that
is laid down for us in the sacred writings. As the pencil is used by the
skilful architect to delineate the intended structure faithfully and
accurately, so it should remind us of our responsibilities as
individuals, always bearing in mind that our thoughts, words and
actions are all recorded by the Most High who, having left us free
to choose our own course of action will assuredly hold us
responsible for our behaviour. The symbolism of the pencil is not
restricted to freemasonry. From ancient times the pen and the tablet
have been symbols of the Holy Spirit and writing has represented the
divinely inspired scriptures. For example, hieroglyphs originally
were the sacred language of ancient Egypt. This symbolism is
typified in the records of the Sufis, the mystics of Islam, who say
of the writing of the Koran:
"God created under the
Arsh (Throne) and of its light a great 'Tablet' in colour as a green
beryl and a great 'Pen' in colour as an emerald and filled with ink
which was of white light. God cried 'Write O Pen!', whereupon it
moved over the Tablet and wrote thereon everything that should
happen till the Last Day and the Tablet was covered over with the
writing. And thereon was then inscribed the Divine original of the
Glorious Koran."
In this dissertation the Tablet is the "table of the heart" on
which the Pen, which represents "Divine Expression",
inscribes the "Law of Wisdom" that
expounds the involution and evolution of the human soul, from its
descent into the human being, its liberation from earthly restraints
and its ascent to reunite with God at the end of this earthly
existence.
The Oxford English Dictionary
describes the skirret as an instrument
for measuring land and aligning trenches, working on a revolving
centre pin. The origin of the word is said to be unknown and the
first recorded usage is shown as 1853. As the skirret was a species of
water turnip that was commonly cultivated in Europe in those days,
it seems likely that the name of the instrument was derived from the
vegetable during the measurement of farming lands. The large roll of
line held on the rotating spool at the upper end of the handle would
appear very much like the vegetable. The skirrets usually displayed
in lodges of speculative craft freemasons are only miniature
representations of the operative freemason's implement. In operative
freemasonry the skirret is commonly used to mark out the ground for
the intended structure. In so doing the line is unreeled from the
spool then chalked and tautly stretched out, so that when it is
pulled up off the ground at about mid-length and released under
tension, a straight chalk line is marked on the ground. The skirret
is also used with a fixed length of line to set out equal distances
from a centre or other given point on the foundation plan, which is
the way it is used when setting out the ground plan of a building
from its centre that has been established on the ground. The use of
the measuring line in ancient times has already been mentioned.
Symbolically, the skirret represents the sacred writings in which a
straight and undeviating line of conduct is clearly laid down for
our guidance. Thus the symbolism of the skirret is closely related
to that of the pencil, which represents the sacred writings
themselves.
The compasses are used to
describe a circle about a given centre point. The name of the
instrument comes from the Old French compasser,
thence through the Middle English compas, both meaning to measure and also proper proportion. This
also is the derivation of the old expression to compass about,
which means to encircle or to circumscribe an area.
The compasses represent a circle, which is a symbol of the
all-embracing principle of Divine manifestation that is perfect and
entire, including everything and wanting nothing, having neither
beginning nor ending, timeless and absolute. Thus they are applied
in Proverbs 8:27-29:
"When he established the heavens I was
there,
when he set a compass on the face of the
deep,
when he made firm the skies above,
when he established the fountains of the
deep,
when he assigned the sea to its
limit,
so that the waters might not transgress
his command,
when he marked out the foundations of the
earth . . . ."
In
freemasonry the compasses or dividers are used to determine with
accuracy and precision the limits and proportions of the intended
structure being designed and the dimensions of the stones being
shaped. The compasses symbolise the unerring justice and
impartiality of God, who has accurately defined for our guidance the
limits of good and evil and has prescribed our obedience thereto,
but has left us free to choose, in the certain knowledge that we
will be rewarded or punished accordingly as we have obeyed or
disobeyed his Divine commands. The compasses also remind us that we
must keep our passions and prejudices within due bounds.
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