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THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF SPECULATIVE FREEMASONRY
CHAPTER I
Masonic essays (1998)
W.M. DON FALCONER
Speculative freemasonry is a natural extension of man's spiritual and mental
attempts to unravel his origins, to comprehend the meaning of life and to
perceive his ultimate destiny, as well as to communicate his thoughts on these
matters to others. Although purely speculative lodges are of recent origin,
speculative freemasonry is as old as the operative art itself. Moreover, the
speculative rituals were not invented by those who established the first purely
speculative lodges, which led to the formation of the early Grand Lodges in the
eighteenth century. These early speculative freemasons were intellectual men who
saw great value in existing rituals, which they culled, collated and codified
into the form used speculative ceremonials. In so doing they were careful to
ensure that every passage of ritual was expressed appropriately in the best
language of the day. The resulting rituals neither did nor could include all the
available material, but they do provide a sound and effective basis for the
speculative ceremonials.
It must be emphasised that those who established the early speculative lodges
did not see the ritual work as an end in itself, but rather as a foundation for
philosophical discussion. The ceremonials used in the lodge room should provide
only an unobtrusive vehicle, subsidiary to the primary function of communicating
one's thoughts to others. These ceremonials have been standardised to relieve
the participants' minds of extraneous matters, that otherwise might impede clear
thought and hinder the delivery of the charges. Furthermore, word perfect
delivery of ritual has no value unless communicated to the recipient in such a
manner as to engage his mind, arouse his interest and incite his comprehension.
Nor are the words of the ritual intended to be the sole instruction, but rather
to provide a sound basis on which to establish discussion on a subject of
relevance and interest. Unlike other animals, man has an insatiable curiosity
concerning his origins and the environment in which he lives. Since recorded
history began some 6,000 years ago, there is continuing evidence of mythologies
and religions being developed in an attempt to provide answers to these
concerns, as does speculative freemasonry also. To appreciate better how masonry
assists man to contemplate his existence, it will first be helpful to consider
the origins and evolution of mankind.
MAN IN PRE-HISTORY
It is presently considered that the physical universe as we now know it has
existed for about 20,000 million years, but that our solar system was formed
only about 4,600 million years ago. Although the first living organisms on earth
probably came into existence about 3,500 million ago, they appear to have
remained unchanged for several thousand million years. Life first flourished in
the seas, but dry land was not successfully colonised until about 400 million
years ago, while all the present continents were still intact, forming a single
continent called Pangaea. It was about 100 million years ago when the present
continents began to split apart, reaching their present configuration around 40
million years ago at the height of the last Ice Age, when so much water was
locked up in the polar ice caps that the sea level fell, exposing most of the
continental shelf areas. The ice caps and glaciers had retreated to roughly
their present positions by about 8,000BC.
The most recent investigations of archaeologists and palaeontologists suggest
that the ramapithecines, which lived between fourteen million and eight million
years ago and flourished across Africa, Asia and Europe, might be our earliest
hominid ancestors, distinguishing us from all other primates. But this is by no
means certain, because the ramapithecines are followed by a gap of some four
million years in the fossil record, after which several hominid species begin to
appear. A more recent and more certain ancestor, called Homo habilis which
signifies "skilful man", lived in the East African Rift Valley around two
million years ago and survived for almost a million years. Our most recent
forebear, Homo erectus which signifies "upright man", seems to have lasted for
about one-and-a-half million years. Finally, Homo sapiens which signifies "wise
man", has existed for a mere 100,000 years or so. When compared with the age of
the universe, our occupation of the earth has been short indeed.
The first 50,000 years of Homo sapiens existence was almost at the end of the
Old Stone Age, which had lasted for nearly 250,000 years. This was the period of
the Early Hunters, during which cultural advance was very slow. Nevertheless,
they made a wide range of stone implements and weapons and also achieved the
control of fire, although they could not kindle it. They could cut and stitch
fur clothing, approaching the standard of modern Eskimos, whilst both men and
women ornamented themselves with necklaces and bracelets of shells, teeth, ivory
beads, mother of pearl and stone. However, their most significant cultural
advance towards the end of this period, probably was that they buried at least
some of their dead with ceremony. It was not uncommon for graves to be marked
with stones or horns and for food and implements to be placed beside the bodies.
Thus, for the first time, man was manifesting a belief in some form of
after-life, heralding the "age of wisdom" signified by his name. Henceforth
man's development would accelerate at an ever increasing rate.
The Early Hunters usually lived in limestone and sandstone caves where these
were prevalent. In other areas they gradually learnt to use locally available
materials such as grass, reeds, mud and even mammoth bones to construct huts, as
well as to make tents from the skins of animals. Around the Mediterranean the
Early Hunters developed into Advanced Hunters between 35,000BC and 30,000BC, at
the height of the last Ice Age, then into the Late Hunters who preceded the
Agricultural Revolution which began between 10,000BC and 8,000BC from region to
region. The advanced Hunters developed a remarkable artistic genius and were the
originators of representational art. The Gravettians of eastern and central
Europe used ivory, bone, clay and even stone, to make small figurines of women
and also some lively animal carvings.
But the greatest achievement of the advanced Hunters was to develop painting,
principally in the south-west of France and in Spain. This was achieved by the
Magdalenians, who most probably were descendants of the Gravettians. These
paintings were made between 15,000BC and 10,000BC, mostly deep inside caves and
far from the hearth and living area. Many of the cave roofs are crowded with
paintings of bison and other animals in the polychrome style, using powdered
ochre, haematite and manganese applied moist with brush, pad or blowpipe. This
period also is noted for being the first when stone was used in construction,
albeit in the simplest form. Although natural caves are quite common in the
eastern Mediterranean, huts with circular stone footings were built in Palestine
and Syria, probably with light domed coverings made from twigs and daub. There
is evidence that at about the same time on the plains of Mesopotamia, where
there are no caves, shelters with stone footings were also used, probably with
superstructures of reeds. These people, the advanced Hunters of around 10,000BC,
therefore were the unlikely progenitors of architecture and masonry.
THE EARLIEST MASONS
These humble beginnings ushered in the Agricultural Revolution, which was
begun by the Late Hunters in the New Stone Age and provided the necessary
foundation for the growth of civilisation. True farming was first developed in
the uplands that sweep to the east and north on the flanks of the valley formed
by the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. This was the natural area for development,
because the wild ancestors of wheat and barley, sheep and goats were native to
it and the upland valleys generally provided fertile soil and good water
supplies. The oldest known evidence of the domestication of sheep and goats is
to be found in this area, dating from 8,200BC and earlier. As the cropping and
grinding of cereals and the herding and domestication of animals developed, the
small upland settlements were extended down into the fertile valley, where
villages began to form around 6,000·BC. Mixed farming had been carried to the
fertile plain of Thessaly in Greece at about the same time, thence southwards to
the Peloponnese, as well as to Crete and Cyprus.
The population grew with these developments, with settlements becoming larger
and more permanent. As a result of this impetus, mud bricks were first made in
Mesopotamia and the Eastern Mediterranean and used in the construction of
houses. These bricks were first shaped by hand, as a Jericho, but later the mud
was rammed into moulds. The use of stone for walls and dykes also became more
prevalent. The largest villages may then have held up to 5,000 people, but
generally were much smaller. Jericho is probably the oldest city in the world
and when constructed around 8,000BC it occupied 4 hectares. It was surrounded by
a massive stone wall 3 metres thick and 4metres high, against which was
constructed at least one circular tower of rock 10 metres in diameter and 8.5
metres high, with a built in stairway, which presently is the world's oldest
known structure. The city was abandoned for a period, but was colonised again
about 7,000BC. The town walls were not renewed, but rectangular houses of mud
brick with high quality plastered walls and floors spread over the whole site.
Jericho was abandoned and reoccupied a number of times thereafter and perhaps is
best known for its destruction by Joshua in Biblical times.
Two other events in this period also were of particular significance, these
being the construction of some of the earliest known religious buildings at
Catal Huyuk in Turkey and the construction of "beehive" houses at Khirokitia in
Cyprus. The "beehive" houses were circular in plan, around 8 to 10 metres in
diameter, with high thresholds to keep out surface water. Their foundations were
of stone, which was carried to a height of about 2 metres, while the
superstructures were corbelled vaults constructed of mud brick and of sufficient
height to accommodate a bedroom gallery accessed by ladder or stairway. The
ground level compartment was partitioned as required with mud brick walls which
also served as supports for the gallery. These houses continued in use until
supplanted by more conventional houses around 5,000BC or even more recently. The
mud brick vaulted arch was a significant advance in architectural design and
construction, paving the way for arch construction in stone. The "beehive"
houses in Cyprus thus reflected the greatest advances of the earliest masons.
Catal Huyuk was occupied from about 6,500BC to 5,500BC and covers an area of
13 hectares. It is thought to have had a population of 6,000 in its heyday,
comprising three different races nowhere else found together in this period. The
houses were rectangular timber framed structures, with mud brick exterior walls
and flat mud rooves placed on closely packed timber poles supported by timber
rafters, furnished with hearths, platforms, benches and ovens. Among the houses
was a series of elaborately decorated shrines which were similar to the houses
in construction and furnishings, though frequently larger. Their sanctuaries
were decorated with wall paintings, plaster reliefs, cult statues and animal
heads. The richly coloured wall paintings frequently depicted hands and ritual
or magic hunting scenes, but the most unusual painting found was a unique
landscape depicting a terraced town of individual houses and blocks of houses
and shrines, with a volcano erupting in the background. The dead of successive
generations of the same family were buried within the platforms of the shrines,
together with appropriate grave goods. This indicates a significant advance in
religious thought, even though the rather crude and sometimes barbarous
manifestations within the shrines were in stark contrast to the great religious
inspiration of architecture and art that was soon to blossom with civilisation.
Masonry, by its very nature, is conducive to speculation in relation to
building work in progress, however primitive the building might be. It is
necessary to consider the suitability and dimensions of the available materials;
to determine the best location and orientation for the structure; and to prepare
sound and level foundations that will support the structure adequately and can
be properly drained. The dimensions must be delineated on the ground before
erection commences and walls must be plumbed, corners must be squared and tops
of walls must be levelled during erection to ensure that the structure is both
stable and pleasing to the eye. Even the earliest masons had to accomplish some
or all of these operations, requiring constructive thought that inevitably would
heighten their awareness to things other than their immediate requirements.
Having constructed walls of rough stones, for example, the first masons soon
comprehended the advantages of regular bricks and used their ingenuity to
provide them. Thus, in a practical sense, speculative masonry was born and soon
would also embrace moral contemplation through a natural association of ideas.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERACY
The next important period of development, from 5,000BC to 3,000BC, roughly
coincides with the copper age and ushers in the first of the monumental
architecture in Egypt and Mesopotamia. Using the simplest of raw materials,
principally mud brick and imported timber, the local inhabitants achieved
remarkable results. Egypt concentrated on huge royal tombs. The mastaba tombs of
the First Dynasty are typical, being decorated externally to represent a "palace
facade". Efforts in Mesopotamia were concentrated on temple building Their
temples rapidly grew larger, more complex and externally more impressive, as
typified by Eridu, in Sumer, where a continuous series of temples has been
distinguished from about 5,500BC to 3,000BC. At Arpachiya, in northern
Mesopotamia, circular houses were constructed similar to the earlier "beehive"
houses of Cyprus, usually extended by a rectangular gable roofed wing, the unit
being called a "tholos". Another notable development was the fortified
settlement at Dimini in Greece, one of the earliest towns known in Europe,
dominated by the "megaron" palace with its pillared porch. Dimini was surrounded
by six concentric walls of undressed limestone, with narrow gateways and
passages which formed a defensive system.
Although great advances were made in architecture and the development of
cities during this period, the greatest achievement undoubtedly was the dawning
of literate civilisation. The Sumerians of the southern plain of Mesopotamia,
around 4,500BC, first drew cuneiform pictograms which represented actual
material objects, to assist in the recording of inventories for grain, cattle
and other commodities. The turning point came when it was realised that a sign
could also stand for a sound, when phonetic writing began. But as the scribal
profession and schools developed, the system of combined ideograms and phonetics
became extremely complicated and it was not until about 3,500BC that writing had
been forged into a practical vehicle for the communication of language.
Meanwhile the Egyptians were developing hieroglyphic writing, which incorporated
a combination of signs for both sounds and ideas when it was first used about
3,300BC. The Egyptian name for their writing meant "speech of the gods",
reflecting its original use for royal inscriptions for the divine pharaohs, not
for the keeping of accounts as cuneiform was originally used in Sumeria.
With the continually increasing emphasis on the construction of larger and
more complex buildings, palaces, temples, shrines, monumental and sepulchral
structures, masonry was no longer a simple task for a small gang of men. It
must, therefore, have been during this period that skilled gangs of masons began
to develop. To enable the work to be carried out successfully it would have been
necessary for the chief of the builders, or master mason, to arrange training
and supervision for very large gangs of masons and allied workers. This must
have been an extremely difficult task, especially as written instructions could
not then be given in writing. The only means of tuition available to them was by
catechism, aided by sketches on slate or an earthen floor, which constituted
their tracing boards. Archaeological investigations have provided overwhelming
proof that, despite these difficulties, the early masons did indeed construct
many outstanding edifices that had a remarkably high standard of finish.
Masonic instruction could only have begun as outlined above, as it has
continued in principle to the present day. Moreover, the frequent if not
continual contact that masons through all ages have had with shrines, temples,
cathedrals, monuments and sepulchral buildings, must have induced masons to
contemplate the meaning of life and certainty of death, as well as to seek an
understanding of the hereafter, much more than would have been usual among the
general population. This would contribute significantly to the speculative
aspects of masonry and would also foster symbolic explanations of the mason's
implements of labour. As in the present day, so then had many relevant masonic
expressions become a part of the languages of those bygone days, which were
recorded with the advent of cursive script. Such philological evidence proves
beyond doubt that at least some elements of symbolism and speculative thought
must have been a part of masonic instruction from the earliest days of organised
masonry.
A host of symbolic references in masonic terms are to be found in the
Scriptures, of which many such as the following are very well known. During a
visit to Bethel about thirty years before the fall of Israel around 745BC, that
event is prophesied in Amos 7, v. 7-9, when the Lord measured his people Israel
with a plumb line and found them to be irremediably warped by sin. In the reign
of Manasseh, the murderous and idolatrous king who ruled from 696BC to 642BC,
the captivity of Judah by Babylon around 606BC is foretold in II Kings, Ch. 21,
v. 13, when the Lord said he would "stretch over Jerusalem the measuring line of
Samaria and the plummet of the house of Ahab". In Isaiah 28, v. 16, written
between 750BC and 700BC, the coming of Christ is foretold in the words "Behold I
am laying in Zion for a foundation a stone, a tested stone, a precious corner
stone, of a sure foundation." This prophesy is referred to in I Peter 2, v. 6-8
around 60AD, when the death of Christ is alluded to in the following significant
words added "for those who do not believe": "The very stone which the builders
rejected has become the head of the corner, a stone that will make men stumble,
a rock that will make them fall". Other Passages from the book of Genesis, taken
in conjunction with some of the traditions preserved in Sumerian, Assyrian and
Hebrew literature, also provide some interesting sidelights on masonry.
In Genesis 4, v. 19-22, we read that Lamech a descendant of Cain had two
wives, Adah and Zillah. Adah bore two sons, Jabal and Jubal, the former being
recorded as "the father of those who dwell in tents and have cattle" and the
latter as "the father of all those who play the lyre and pipe". Traditionally,
Jabal is also said to be the founder of geometry and the first mason who built
stone walls and houses of stone. Zillah bore a son Tubal-cain and a daughter
Naamah, the former being recorded as "the forger of all instruments of bronze
and iron" and the latter being referred to in the traditions as the founder of
weaving. These four are thus credited with the origin of civilised society. We
also read of Nimrod in Genesis 10, v. 8-11, where we are told that he was "the
first man on earth to be a mighty man", "a mighty hunter" and that "he built
Ninevah . . . . that is the great city". Traditionally, it is said that masons
first became of note at the building of the Tower of Babel, the first structure
to be mentioned in the Scriptures (Genesis 11, v. 1-9); also that Nimrod was a
master mason who loved the craft, formed his masons into lodges and gave them a
charter and a charge when he sent them forth to build all the cities in his
kingdom. Although it is impossible at present to date events such as these with
any accuracy, they must have occurred around the beginning of the Agricultural
Revolution.
MONUMENTAL MASONRY
By 3,000BC the Egyptians had developed a calendar with 365 days to the year,
from which time their historical records are accurate. The development of
writing and literature continued apace in Sumeria, but Egypt was supreme in the
visual arts and architecture. Civilisation began to flourish and monumental
masonry developed on an immense scale and with unprecedented complexity. The
three Great Pyramids of Giza in Egypt and the huge Ziggurat of Urnammu in
Mesopotamia are typical of this period. Although the scale of architecture in
Mesopotamia was not as great as in Egypt, it was the Mesopotamians who were more
innovative in their use of the arch, which they used extensively in tombs. The
art of writing continued to develop and its use was becoming more widespread.
Signs unearthed at Byblos in Lebanon date from around 2,500BC and are in a
script similar to that then used in Syria. Pottery found at Byblos and Sidon,
also in Lebanon, from the period 2,100BC to 1,700BC, provide some of the
earliest evidence of the use of a linear script called pseudo-hieroglyphics.
This was an early form of non-Egyptian alphabetic script variously designated as
Canaanite, Sinaitic or proto-Phoenician.
This comparatively simple script progressively replaced the syllabic
cuneiform scripts of Babylonia and Syria, as well as the complex hieroglyphic
writing of Egypt, so that by about 1,500BC an alphabet was in general use. From
this alphabet were progressively derived the Phoenician about 1,000BC, early
Hebrew about 700BC, old Greek also about 700BC and formal Greek about 500BC
whence the Roman was derived. With the development of writing in an era of
prodigious monumental construction, coupled with the advances being made in
moral and religious teaching, albeit spasmodically, it must reasonably be
assumed that the speculative aspects of masonry also were developing and would
have received considerable impetus when the building of so magnificent an
edifice as King Solomon's Temple was commenced around 960BC at Jerusalem. The
later desecration of the temple and its destruction by Nebuchadnezzar about
587BC must have had a serious impact on the faith of masons in those days, but
that faith would have been renewed by the decree of Cyrus in 538BC, allowing the
captives in Babylon to return to Jerusalem to rebuild the house of the Lord,
initially under the leadership of Sheshbazzar, or Zerubbabel. The restoration
and enlargement of the temple by Herod in the period 20BC to 64AD, when 1,000
priests were trained as masons to build the shrine, must have significantly
enhanced speculative masonic thought.
CLASSICAL MASONRY
The emergence of Greece as a colonising nation and centre of learning, art,
and religious thought in the western Mediterranean, from around 1,100BC,
heralded the era of classical masonry. Their first stone temples were erected at
Corinth and Isthmia before 650BC, whence the Doric order originated, followed by
the temples at Corfu and Ephesuswithin the next hundred years, whence the Ionic
order originated. The Corinthian order was first used in Delphi around 390BC.
Until the ascendancy of Rome, even in Rome itself, Greek architecture prevailed
around the Mediterranean and temples proliferated. Without doubt the most famous
classical Greek structures are the Parthenon at Athens and its surrounding
structures, built between 447BC and 432BC. The emphasis which the Greeks placed
on the ancient Mysteries in classical times must have been a significant
influence on speculative masonic thought, still being reflected in some masonic
ceremonials. This influence continued into the turbulent period of Roman rule.
Rome began to expand her territory by taking Carthage and Corinth in 146BC
and Pergamum in 133BC. By 100BC Rome's territory nearly encircled the
Mediterranean and by 117AD the Roman empire was at its greatest in strength and
extent. During this period Rome developed cities and constructed amphitheatres
and temples apace throughout its region of influence, particularly in the Middle
East. Of the Roman era, the two most celebrated structures probably are the
Colosseum in Rome and the temple complex at Baalbek in Lebanon, between Beirut
and Damascus in Syria. The temple complex was built on the podium of an ancient
temple, progressively over a period of almost 300 years, being completed around
260AD. When it became part of Ptolemy's Egyptian empire in 332BC, until the
Roman occupation around 30BC, Baalbek was known as Heliopolis in Phoenicia and
was the religious centre of the region. Baalbek is remarkable for its size and
architectural finish, many foundation blocks being 4 metres square in section
and 20 metres long, weighing up to 800 tonnes. Many of the columns were
monolithic, of pink Aswan granite and having an overall height of 19.6 metres.
The decline and fall of the Roman empire heralded the beginning of the final
phase in speculative evolution, that period of almost continuous cathedral
building in Britain and Europe lasting from 500 until at least 1,700. Operative
or Guild Masons were organised in England with royal approval dating at least
from the Annual Assembly of 926, which was authorised and encouraged by King
Athelstan. The lodges of operative Free Masons were organised under the
guardianship of craft guilds, originally in the form of religious fraternities,
continuing in this manner until Henry VIII dis-endowed all religious
fraternities by the Act of 1547. Masters of lodges were responsible for the
moral and religious welfare of their indentured apprentices, as well as for
their practical training in the craft of masonry. The ancient charges testify to
this. It is clear from the old catechisms and other records that have come down
to us from the operative lodges, especially in Scotland where the Reformation
was less drastic in its effect, that moral instruction was an integral part of
the ceremonies. The working tools clearly were vehicles of moral instruction
from a very early date, as also were various aspects of a mason's work that were
converted to simple plays to communicate a message. These were adapted by Dr
James Anderson and other early speculative ritualists in the preparation of the
rituals in use today.
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