Ritual- Its
Importance & Meaning
by W. Bro.
Victor G. Popow
Foreword
From time to time people need supplemental information that reminds or
reinforces. In my own humble view it seemed important to submit this paper as
increasingly the Freemasonic organization comes under pressure to ratify its
ritual so as to make it more palatable for today's potential candidates.
Additionally, Freemasons, be they associated with Craft Lodge, Scottish Rite
or Royal Arch bodies have no comprehension of what ritual 'is,' or its
possible function. The lack of understanding coupled with a desire to ratify,
is most likely to precipitate change or an attempt to change the ritual in the
name of fashion or utility, that is, if we don't consistently seek to educate
and encourage knowledge. This is nothing new as previous Masonic authors have
written that the Masonic revivalists of 1717 diluted and reformulated "The Old
Freemasonry [which was] the exclusive patrimony of men of a philosophic turn
of mind, people who "speculated;" but Inigo Jones diluted it; then in 1717 the
newly founded Grand Lodge of London went further in that direction,
simplifying its Ritual and extending its membership so as to include all sorts
and conditions of men."1
Today, we find that one particular subordinate arm of Masonry2
seeks to divest itself of its roots, without which, would simply in time,
become yet another service club. Would this action be occurring if all members
had an intimate knowledge of the Craft and more specifically the ritual? I
think not. Unfortunately, all too often, we find Masons performing like
automatons; the majority blindly regurgitates the Work without being conscious
of the value or meaning of the ritual they perform. On the one hand, to the
materialist, the Work may seem pointless or vacant of any inherent 'value,' on
the other, the philosophical or spiritually minded Mason may find the Work
pregnant with meaning which appeals to the heart or the mind. It was not my
intent to study the voluminous symbolic nature of Masonic ritual or the
historical evolution of ritual, I leave that to the Masonic scholars and the
‘authentic school,’ this paper editorializes the need to understand the
meaning of ritual itself.
Over the years, many Masonic writers have lamented the loss of the secrets
of Masonry; I'm not convinced they are lost, just purposely hidden, waiting to
be probed and then ‘discovered’ by the enlightened Brother. Our Freemasonic
ritual conveys important truths and is a rich and a valuable portion of every
Mason's journey toward light. The value of exploring the universal nature of
ritual and its relevance to our Craft is not so much what we learn, as what we
become by exposure to it. A true evolutionary path, which cannot be
understated.
"The light was in the world, and the World was made by it, and the world
knew it not" John 1:10
Introduction
Ritual takes many forms, it may consist of simple routines which an
individual submits to on a daily basis or it may be of more complex ceremony
as in marriage, graduation from a civil or military organization or a rite of
passage from a boy to manhood. Rituals to which I would like to speak concern
the genuine and profound mysteries of Freemasonry and its effects on the
psyche or consciousness of man. Just how important is symbolic Masonic ritual
to the well being of the individual and to the Craft indeed to society itself?
Why do we, as intelligent and rational people submit to arcane, and perhaps
what some may view as out dated or obtuse actions? What significance if any do
they hold?
This issue of ritual, its meaning and importance is relevant today, perhaps
more so than in the past. Our global society, ever expanding, becoming
homogenous in nature and activity is more concerned with the acquisition of
material and the temporal satiation of the five senses than the search for
meaning and its own soul. I would submit that this moment in history is more
important than any before as a society once divested of its soul, its roots,
becomes dangerously unsustainable and has the potential to destroy itself
through ignorance or imbalance. Freemasonry as a truly ancient institution
must be the vanguard of ritual, enabling its members, providing them with a
positive sense of worth and of value. Indeed Freemasonry, properly
functioning, sustains its brethren and the society in which it operates.
Ritual and Meaning
In Western cultures we find technological advancements and the ever present
material hunger of the consumer, cultivated and perpetuated by advertising and
effective marketing, the normal pattern of our existence. As an organized
society we seem to be displaced or unconnected to our spirit, the sense of who
and what we are, why we are here and what we are supposed to 'be.' More and
more we find young people unconnected to any particular positive spiritual,
religious or social activity. Thus, young people feel alienated and
disassociated with the rest of society. We find the rise of gangs and the
violence permeated by them due perhaps to a lack of focus or direction and
this desire to be part of a group is evidence of a natural inclination to feel
part of a larger whole. Ritual is especially important for young people as it
provides them with a sense of connection to a larger world, think of the
macabre initiations of the urban youth of Los Angles which demands a 'ritual'
act of murder or similar violent act before privilege or membership might be
granted. Important or profound activities, which may cause a person to
transcend his or her former thinking or pattern of behavior and cause them to
enter new planes of understanding, is miserably lacking in contemporary
society.
Carl Jung wrote "Modem man does not understand how much his 'rationalism'
(which has destroyed his capacity to respond to numinous symbols and ideas)
has put him at the mercy of the psychic 'underworld.' He has freed himself
from 'superstition' (or so he believes), but in the process he has lost his
spiritual values to a positively dangerous degree. His moral and spiritual
tradition has disintegrated, and he is now paying the price for this breakup
in world-wide disorientation and dissociation."3
Anthropologists have often described what happens to a primitive society
when its spiritual values are exposed to the impact of modern civilization.
Its people lose the meaning of their lives, their social organization
disintegrates, and they themselves morally decay. We are now in the same
condition. But we have never really understood what we have lost, for our
spiritual leaders unfortunately are more interested in protecting their
institutions then in understanding the mystery that symbols present. In my
opinion, faith does not exclude thought (which is man's strongest weapon), but
unfortunately many believers seem to be so afraid of science (and-
incidentally of psychology) that they turn a blind eye to the numinous psychic
powers that forever control man's fate. We have stripped all things of their
mystery' and numinosity, nothing is holy any longer."4
In the ancient world, in Persia, Egypt and Greece, the Lesser and Greater
Mysteries were bestowed upon the candidates through secret language, rituals
of initiation, passing and raising. Ritual was considered holy and the primary
way that communication between humans and powers beyond immediate human
existence- the transcendent were conducted. One did not approach the
transcendental powers casually, but through careful preparation, purification,
special clothing, ritual movements and gestures, speech, visual
representations and group interaction. Initiates were passed into a world
unlike anything formerly known, a new sphere of existence, to a new dimension
of awareness. Greek drama is said to have had its origins in the initiation
rites of Dionysus, Egypt’s prototype for initiation was Osiris and the Persian
mystery religions of Mithras had their own seven degrees of initiation.
It should be observed the word mystery might have two distinct meanings. There
were the Mysteries of ancient times such as the Pythagorean, Orphic,
Eleusenian schools where ceremonies were conducted in secret and certain
philosophical knowledge as well as signs of recognition were revealed to the
candidate. There were also Mysteries of the ancient building trade guilds of
the Middle Ages where trades people coveted their techniques and methods. With
respect to our modern mysteries within the Craft we certainly do not pass
along knowledge of projective geometry, proportional mathematics and the laws
of irrational numbers to our new candidates, so much as information rooted in
symbolism which pertains to philosophical morality- a custom which has its
roots in ancient times. Though our modern mysteries may not be so transparent
as some materialistic or rational Freemasons may prefer, ideas and symbols of
far older streams of Hermetic philosophy are still evident. True ritual should
provide the means by which an individual can grow and transcend his immediate
environment. Ritual should be a positive experience, which reflects the
harmony and unifying principles of nature and of the Great Architect. Ritual
provides us with purpose and meaning in all that we think, speak and do.
In 1867, the great pioneer of Egyptology Lepsius wrote: "The Book of the Dead,
or the collection of the texts relating to the resurrection, the judgment, and
the life in the other world, was in its essential character a book of
practical instruction. Its aim was to inform the individual, intent on his
spiritual welfare, about what already on earth should be known and prepared by
him for his death."
Aristotle once said, "those undergoing the mysteries (teIoumenoi) should not
'learn' (mathein) but should 'be affected,' 'suffer', or 'experience' (pathein)."5
I am not suggesting that modern Freemasonry is a lineal descendant of those
ancient Mysteries found in the numerous ancient Eastern or Western cultures
but is inspired by them. The revivalists of 1717 built upon ancient myths,
wove symbols and allegories derived from the symbolism of King Solomon’s
Temple.
The etymology of the Tibetan word for 'initiation' is 'conferral of power' and
within "Tibetan tradition three assumptions are made with respect to
initiation: 1) The hall or room where the initiation takes place is the 'pure
realm;' 2) The Lama directing the initiation is the Primordial Buddha; 3) The
initiates are receiving secret oral traditions."6
Indeed initiation as we see from descriptions from both Asian and Western
tradition alludes not to knowledge but a particular state of grace. To be
initiated is to be introduced, to receive what rational thought may not
understand. One may be in state of grace and be thoughourly unfamiliar with
theology. lt is to be united and linked with primeval or natural forces, thus
to be religious in the proper sense of the word (religion Latin 'religare',
meaning to rebind) is to be imbued with spirit.
Masonic Ritual
The Encyclopedia of Freemasonry states: "Ritual. The mode of opening and
dosing a Lodge, of conferring the degrees, of installation, and other duties,
constitute a system of ceremonies, which are called the Ritual. Much of this
ritual is esoteric, and, not being permitted to be committed to writing, is
communicated only by oral instruction."7
Knowledge of ancient rituals in as much as Freemasonic rites are written
can be possessed by those who seek to learn its 'secrets.’ There is much that
is contained within these rituals but to an outside observer it certainly
would not be understood as one who has experienced it. Its modes of symbols,
words and allusions to sacred geometry, cosmology, living and dying or
renewal.
I recall a particular Bro. Barry Jones who spoke at a Masonic Educational
Workshop and who recounted his visit to Germany and his experience of
Freemasonic initiation there. He explained portions of their work which
culminated in the initiate being asked to look into the V.S.L and there being
a mirror placed upon it, the candidate seeing himself, was given explanation
that all the secrets were to found within himself. How does Freemasonry make a
good man better? I would venture to say through one avenue, its ritual, which
is a pathway to inner growth, to self-knowledge. "God said let there be light"
and we find in our degrees that phrase which presupposes the expansion of the
light of consciousness.
Carl Jung in lending explanation to the archetypes of initiation comments
those rites of initiation "relate to particular phases in the life of an
individual, or of a group, and unless they are properly understood and
translated into a new way of life, the moment can pass. Initiation is,
essentially, a process that begins with a rite of submission (when we enter
the Craft in our E.A degree-author’s note), followed by a period of
containment (the F.C degree-author’s note), and then by a further note of
liberation (M.M.-author’s note). In this way every individual can reconcile
the conflicting elements of his personality, he can strike a balance that
makes him truly human, and truly the master of himself."
8
Some disturbing trends in Freemasonry today which we find concerning our
ritual are 'all the way in one day' exercises which puts a large group of
people through the three (or more) degrees! Another is the deliberate intent
of a certain Masonic body (a North American phenomenon) to capture members
from directly off the street in order to directly attack the problem of
diminishing membership. Another concern is the need or relevance of memory
work. There are efforts to ratify the Work, to simplify or delete aspects of
it. All of these issues are a result of one thing, ignorance, on the part of
Masons who have no idea at the essence of what the Craft is and what its
ritual represents. Ritual must never be subservient to money or membership
numbers. Ritual must never be changed in order to accommodate people who will
never try to understand or appreciate its philosophical intent. Masonic ritual
must be probed and understood from a psychological and historical point of
view in order to understand or appreciate its vast dimensions and great
depths. To be sure many of our members have not only a lack of understanding
as to what ritual is but they lack proper training to make degree work the
empowering transformational experience that it should be. We have heard of the
style of Continental or South American Masonry in which a candidate passes
through one degree per year, the standards being very high, the education of a
Mason very detailed and relevant to his becoming a Master Mason. Some
Freemasons today comment upon the need to make entry more difficult and more
challenging, thus elevating the standard. Prof. David Stevenson- in his
Origins of Freemasonry writes,"craft, religious order or fraternity almost
invariably included some element of ordeal (suffering fear, ridicule, or
humiliation), and themes of death and rebirth were common. The functions of
the ordeal were mixed. By making the transition from one to another difficult
it stressed how important the change was, and increased the value of the
status sought: the harder it is to gain entry to a group, the more desirable
it becomes. Moreover, those who had to suffer to gain entry were more likely
to be strongly committed to the group they had joined than they would
otherwise have been." 9 And further we find, "The fact that all had in a group had to undergo
the same type of initiation served to create a strong bond between them."
10
It is very interesting to find the emphasis on memorization as a
communication method being as important and pervasive today as it was in the
remote past. Memorization as a vehicle or characteristic of ritual as one of
the seven liberal arts and sciences can be recognized as a technique being
used to improve the capacity of one's memory. In ancient Greece the
application of the art of memory was found to be of "particular value to
orators and lawyers in memorizing long speeches, but was also seen as being of
much wider application in the ages before printing, and indeed before
widespread and cheap availability of a medium on which to write; a capacious
and well organized memory was regarded as central to education and culture."
11 To memorize a speech a student created in his mind a complex building
with all manner of rooms furnished with images and symbols in fixed locations.
He would then move through each room in a sequential manner in turn moving
through a particularly crafted speech. "In the ancient world the art of memory
was classified as an aspect of Rhetoric but Cicero- himself an advocate of the
art- classified memory as one of the three parts of the virtue of Prudence
(the others being intelligence and foresight). ln the long term this had great
significance for the art of memory, for the virtues defined by Cicero
(Prudence, Justice, Fortitude and Temperance) became accepted in the Middle
Ages as the four cardinal virtues (and having fashionable prominence in
operative and/or speculative Masonry-author’s note). Thus in time the art of
memory, identified with prudence, came to be regarded as an aspect of ethics.
The work of St. Augustine added further significance to memory, for he
regarded it as one of the three parts of the soul (the others being
understanding and will), and taught that through exploring the memory men
could find a memory image of God embedded in their own souls. What had begun
as utilitarian technique for improving the memory had come to be seen as being
of importance in religion not just as a valuable method of imprinting
religious truths on the mind, but also as something that in itself had moral
value and would lead to a knowledge of God."
12 The man who is generally recognized as having the honour of being the
creator of modern Freemasonry is William Schaw
13 (1550-1602), appointed Master of Works by King James VI of Scotland,
Schaw in his second code of statutes suggested that "all Masons be trained in
the art of memory and be regularly tested in it." The art of memory was
widespread throughout Renaissance Europe and no doubt influenced the later
development of speculative Freemasonry. It is curious that echoes of this
practice, though the technique itself may be forgotten, still remain, as the
few members who exhibit the ability to deliver long ritual passages are
recognized and coveted. Today, Freemasons do not question the ritual content
of the three degrees itself so much as the delivery method- the actual need
for memorization itself. This is a modern cultural development, and will no
doubt continue to be debated as an issue in an age where the volume of
information exponentially grows and time constraints abound.
There is much in our ritual that can be found as having connection to the
ancient mysteries of remote cultures and also potent psychological meaning.
For example, we find the winding staircase of the second degree as a symbol
for the raising of one's consciousness. Moving upward, whether it be an image
of a staircase or a symbol such as Jacob's Ladder, or symbolism relating to
climbing a mountain to the pinnacle, signifies that Freemasonry is a
progressive science, and our rituals and symbols serve this end. The rite of
circumambulating around the altar connects modern Freemasonry with the ancient
mysteries in which formal procession, which alluded to the course of the sun
from east to west, was made with the right side of the body next to the altar.
Circumambulation was from the west to the north, to the east, south, west and
then north again. Such ceremonies of circumambulation were common in ancient
Greece, Rome, among the Druids and the Hindus.
In the ancient Mithraic Mysteries, which stretched from Asia Minor through
Central and Southern Europe to as far west as England, we find the symbolic
pictorial representations of stars and constellations. The figures which
accompany the tauroctony (the central figure Mithras portrayed killing the bull)
are the snake, bull, scorpion, dog, raven, lion and a cup which academics have
recently viewed as having parallels in groups of constellations which are
visible at certain times of the year. "The Bull is paralleled by Taurus, the
scorpion by Scorpius, the dog by Canis Minor, the snake by Hydra, the raven by
Corvus, the lion by Leo, and the cup by Crater; in addition, the star Spica the
wheat ear (the brightest star in Virgo) parallels the ears of wheat which are
often shown in the tauroctony growing out of the tip of the bull's tail."
14 The sun, the moon, the Zodiac, the planets conveys images of the cosmos
and played a central role in Mithraic ritual. Observe the Freemasonic ritual of
today that inculcates symbolically "Astronomy is that divine art by which we are
taught to read the wisdom, strength and beauty of the Almighty Creator in those
sacred pages, the celestial hemisphere." A principle component of Masonic ritual
involves discourse upon one of the seven liberal arts and sciences, astronomy.
The lecture of the F.C. degree eloquently states the need for the candidate to
be cognizant of "the phenomena arising from the annual revolution and the
diurnal rotation of the earth round its awn axis." To be sure the delivery of
the lecture ensures the need for the adherents of Masonry to recognize the
important and rudimentary astronomic concepts as in the former ritual of ancient
times. Ritual brings the candidate to the realization that he is part of a vast
intricate web of nature and its Creator. As a cautionary note, candidates who
are not necessarily motivated by learning all the details of the lecture or fail
to pay respectful attention will not gain anything out of the rituals either
emotionally or intellectually.
This great respect and attention at ritual being a vehicle for discovery, be
it to concepts of cosmology, the rotations of the planets and the cycles of the
cosmos, to the changing of the seasons, had tremendous significance to the
initiated who acted in harmony with the universe. Indeed the structures or the
sites of sacred places the world over- be they the Neolithic structures of
Stonehenge, England or Newgrange, Ireland; the Nazca lines of Peru; the Egyptian
Pyramids of Giza or the Temple at Karnak; the Temple of Athena; the Temple
complexes of the Aztecs; the Cambodian Temples of Ankor; or those of the Hindus,
all were constructed with deliberation and reverence employing practical
knowledge of materials, knowledge of astronomy and geography (sacred geography)
and imbued with knowledge respecting the sacred principles of geometry (the use
of the Golden Section for example). That man, his actions or his constructions,
the world and the universe about him must all harmonize with the Great Architect
and His universe, is an extremely ancient idea and finds expression through the
Hermetic maxim "As above so below." Ritual always has been and must continue to
be the ‘road map’ by which universal knowledge and philosophy revolutionizes
mans spirit. This is rituals importance and this is its vital meaning.
We find within the third degree allusion to death and renewal. Parallel to
the Masonic rituals, the ancient institutions of Persia, Egypt, Greece, Rome,
the Lesser and Greater Mysteries instructed neophytes in the great cycles of
time and the natural world as taught through astrology (synonymous with
astronomy) and philosophy. Perhaps ritual may also serve psychological function
as we may find reference to psychological death to which St Paul spoke of when
he remarked that "I die daily," indeed a process of 'dying to oneself.' Perhaps
this may be thought of as an allusion to dying to the sensory world, a world of
empty temporality and the gradual cognitive growth of a larger dimension in
which one plays an intricate part. Rebirth must be preceded by a symbolic death,
the drama of death initiates growth and renewal, again a very ancient ritual
enacted today in our Craft. Though the concept of death may contain far less
esoteric or psychological intent as Masonic scholar Bernard E. Jones writes:
"What more natural than the young mason should die to his apprentice hood and
rise a master? What more appropriate to symbolize this then the legend of Hiram?
Let it be remembered how many legends we possess of apprentices losing their
lives immediately after executing their masterpieces. There are stories of the
'Prentice Pillar' of Rosslyn Chapel, of the apprentice window of Rouen, of the
apprentice bracket of Gloucester Cathedral, of the apprentice minaret of the
Mosque at Damietta, and others. The truth behind those legends, is probably that
the apprentice did 'die' as an apprentice immediately after executing his
masterpiece. In each case, says Speth, it was the masterpiece that entitled him
to promotion."15
Conclusion
I tend to think that when most of us enter the Craft we respectfully submit
to the demands of membership and its unusual ritual without immediately
reflecting upon its meaning. Few ever make the effort to realize the historical
and philosophical dimensions of Masonic ritual or what it may impart to an
individual. I submit that this is most dangerous, especially when desire to
change ritual, caused by our fast paced culture to make it easier to memorize or
deliver more ‘effectively’ may harm the essence of what the ritual is-
Freemasonry’s heart, mind and spirit. One must shutter at the prospect of
brethren who have no conception of the immense breadth and depth of ritual, its
meaning within the context of its deep connections to the ancient mysteries of
centuries past, to the several streams of Hermetic philosophy, how could these
people be allowed to, in their blind ignorance, change portions, words,
gestures, steps of this or that ritual or degree? This is not to say that our
Work may not be changed or enhanced but it must be done consciously respecting
what was and has been.
It is said that ancient York Rite 16 ritual done properly reveals curious floor patterns, which
demonstrate Hebrew letters and hence have connection with Kabbalistic
philosophy. I won't comment either way about such things, but it certainly
demonstrates to me that our Work, its words, or perhaps every movement (floor
patterns) are fashioned with profound richness and intent. Our ritual then, like
the great cathedrals of old, erected by reason, with purpose, and clear utility,
is by virtue of design meant to connect us to some quality deep within
ourselves. We are the vanguards of sacred knowledge and we must submit to caring
for our ritual in the midst of a world that is increasingly disconnected with
the past, disrespectful and cynical of such rites, materialistic and rife with
religious fundamentalism. Our symbolic ritual is a legacy handed to us from our
ancient past to be carried into our future without change and without deletion
with strict and caring observance.
"That which constitutes the essence of heaven, earth, air
and water, and
that which embraces the life of man, as well as that which the fiery God
creates In the whole world: I, Philosphia, bear all In my breast"
Albrecht Durer, Nuremberg, 1502
Bibliography & Further Reading
Ancient Mystery Cults by Walter Burke, Harvard University Press, 1987.
Ancient Mystic Rites by C.W. Leadbeater, Quest Books, printed 1986.
Freemasons Guide and Compendium by Bernard E Jones, McCoy Publishing and Masonic
Supply Co., 1950.
The Genuine Secrets in Freemasonry Prior to A.D. 1717 by Rev. F. de P. Castells,
A Lewis, 1930.
The Origins of Freemasonry by David Stevenson, Cambridge University Press, 1988.
The Origins of the Mithraic Mvsteries, Cosmology & Salvation in the Ancient
World by David
Ulansey, Oxford University Press, 1989.
Man and His Symbols by Carl G. Jung, Dell Publishing, 1964.
Psychology and Religion: East and West by C.G.Jung, Pantheon Books, 1958
The Power of Myth by Joseph Campbell, Anchor Books Doubleday, 1988
Whv Ritual? By V.W. Rev. F. Shade, Freemasonry Uncovered, Transactions of the
Victorian
Lodge of Research#218, Vol.9, 1995.
The Secret of the Medieval Masons, by Paul Frankl
The Temple by John M. Lundquist, Thames and Hudson, 1993
The Secret Zodiacs of Washington DC, by David Ovason, 1999
Heaven’s Mirror- Quest for the Lost Civilization, by Graham Hancock & S. Faiia,
1998
The Secret Language of the Stars and Planets by G. Cornelius & P. Devereux
Notes
1.- The Genuine Secrets in Freemasonry. Prior to A.D. 1717, by Rev. F. de P.
Castells, A. Lewis Publishers, 1930, pp 36.
2.- A North American phenomenon.
3.- Man and His Symbols, by Carl Jung, Dell Publishing, 1964, pp 84.
4.- Man and His Symbols, pp 84.
5.- Ancient Mysterv Cults, by Walter Burket, Harvard University Press, 1987, pp.
69.
6.- The Temple, by John M. Lundquist, Thames and Hudson, 1993, pp 20.
7.- Encyclopedia of Freemasonry by A. MacKey and C. T. McClenachan, Masonic
History Co., 1873 & 1878, pp. 627.
8.- Man and His Symbols, pp. 156.
9.- The Origins of Freemasonry, by David Stevenson, Cambridge University Press,
1988, pp 155.
10.- Ibid.
11.- Renaissance Historian and Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature Francis
E. Yates coined the term, the art of memory- the application of mnemonic devices
as a practical methodology. Introduced in her remarkable book The Art of Memory
Yates focused on the occult developments of the art of memory during the
sixteenth century. A subject she considered completely neglected.
12.- The Origins of Freemasonry, pp 89.
13.- While Schaw is recognized by some as the creator of modern Freemasonry (c.
16th century) it is of vital importance to be aware of the fact that the history
of the Mother Lodge of Kilwinning #0 in Ayershire precedes this event by 400
years. We find that St. Winning, the patron saint founded his cell (hence Cell
Winning or Kilwinning) in 1140, a stately monastery erected by the Tyronensian
Order from France who were "fraternal architects who built with the principles
of Gothic architecture." Before they left for Scotland, the monks from Tyrone
received bulls from Rome granting them privileges in calling themselves
‘free-masons’ wherever they traveled- History of The Antient Mother Ludge of
Scotland Mother Kilwinning No.0 by J. A. Ness.
14.- The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries, Cosmology & Salvation in the Ancient
World by David Ulansey, Oxford University Press, 1989, pp 15.
15.- Freemason's Guide and Compendium, by Bernard E. Jones, Macoy Publishing,
1950, pp 321.
16.- York Rite or American Work, the traditional work of my own Mother Lodge, St.
John’s #4.
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